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Definitional Essay and Reading List: Health Risk Communication
Draft 5, July 6, 2007
Bev Holmes
Twenty years ago, only a handful of academic and policy-related articles existed on the subject of risk communication. Today, risk communication (both theory and practice) is a thriving interdisciplinary endeavour drawing on such traditions as risk assessment and management, environmental studies, health education/promotion, sociology, communications and psychology. Lively debates on the nature of expertise, the truth of scientific facts, the ethics of persuasion and more have marked the fields evolution over the past two decades.
Risk communication is often defined as a purposeful exchange of information; however for this comprehensive area I approach risk communication as both the planned and unplanned exchange of information about a phenomenon that is believed to have the potential to impose harm. This definition extends the study beyond communications between experts and laypeople, broadening it to incorporate an exploration of risk discourse in general. Although my reading list covers readings on the emergence of risk communications as a field at which point psychological frameworks dominated and environmental and technological risks were the focus I have placed as much emphasis as possible on the more recent sociological and sociocultural aspects of risk that are receiving attention in the health and health communication literature. I have also kept my focus on communication of risk to the public or specific groups of the public in line with the field of risk communication rather than to individuals.
Formal risk analysis from which risk communication developed began in the early 20th century with the analysis of hazards associated with new technologies. According to Krimsky and Golding ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Krimsky1992285Social theories of riskBook, Whole285Social theories of riskKrimsky,S.Golding,D.1992RiskIn FileKrimsky,S.Golding,D.Westport, CTPraeger2Krimsky1992285Social theories of riskBook, Whole285Social theories of riskKrimsky,S.Golding,D.1992RiskIn FileKrimsky,S.Golding,D.Westport, CTPraeger2(1992), risk analysis was fully professionalized by the 1970s, with the formation of federal bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency. While risk communication arose as a way to bridge the gap between expert and laypeoples understanding of risk (for the most part aimed at encouraging the latter to think like the former), it has evolved along with the broader fields of risk studies. Now, risk communication draws on a rich range of theoretical perspectives, from cognitive science (rooted in psychology, based on realism, and including the psychometric and mental models approaches to risk perception and communication) to sociocultural (drawing on cultural anthropology, philosophy and cultural geography, emphasizing social and cultural contexts in which risks are understood) to social constructionist (a wide range of perspectives in itself, common to which is the idea that a risk is not a static, objective phenomenon but rather is constructed and negotiated as part of a network of social interaction, ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Lupton1999301RiskBook, Whole301RiskLupton,D.1999RiskCultureIn FileLondonRoutledge2(Lupton, 1999), p. 29).
PhD comprehensive exam definitional essay and reading list: Health risk communication
Draft 5, July 6, 2007contd
Many of my readings cover a wide range of risk topics within themselves, from theories of risk and society, to the history of risk as a concept, to risk assessment and management, to the history, theory and practice of risk communication, to empirical research and case studies. Therefore it is difficult to categorize the readings under specific headings. However, a loose classification follows:
For a discussion of the sociological dimensions of a risk society, I have chosen writings of Beck ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Beck1999327World risk societyBook, Whole327World risk societyBeck,Ulrich1999RiskIn FileCambridgePolity Press2Beck1996328World risk society as cosmopolitan society?: Ecological questions in a framework of manufactured uncertaintiesJournal328World risk society as cosmopolitan society?: Ecological questions in a framework of manufactured uncertaintiesBeck,Ulrich1996RiskuncertaintyIn File132Theory, Culture & Society134Theory, Culture & Society1Beck2006329Living in the world risk societyJournal329Living in the world risk societyBeck,Ulrich2006RiskIn File329345Economy and Society353Economy and Society1(1996; 1999; 2006) and Bauman ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Bauman2007330Liquid times: Living in an age of uncertaintyBook, Whole330Liquid times: Living in an age of uncertaintyBauman,Z.2007uncertaintyIn FileCambridge, UKPolity Press2Bauman1999332In search of politicsBook, Whole332In search of politicsBauman,Z.1999In FileStanford, CAStanford University Press2(2007; 1999). Douglas and Wildavsky ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Douglas1982325Risk and culture: An essay on the selection of technical and environmental dangersBook, Whole325Risk and culture: An essay on the selection of technical and environmental dangersDouglas,M.Wildavsky,A.1982RiskCultureIn FileBerkely, CAUniversity of California Press2(1982) write on the cultural theory of risk. As further background to the specifics of risk communication, Lupton (1999) reviews risk and society approaches and discusses risk as a societal concept; and Tarr and Jacobson ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Tarr1987319Environmental risk in historical perspectiveBook Chapter319Environmental risk in historical perspectiveTarr,J.Jacobson,C.1987RiskPerceptionIn File317344The social and cultural construction of risk: Essays on risk selection and perceptionJohnson,B.B.Covello,V.13DordrechtD. Reidel3(1987) provide a historical perspective on risk management from the 1900s until the late 1980s. Krimsky and Golding (1992), in what is considered a risk studies classic with input from the major risk theorists, outline the history of risk studies, including the dominant and emerging paradigms. Taylor-Gooby and Zinn ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Taylor-Gooby2006326Current directions in risk research: New developments in psychology and sociologyJournal326Current directions in risk research: New developments in psychology and sociologyTaylor-Gooby,P.Zinn,J.2006RiskpsychologyIn File397411Risk Analysis262Risk Analysis1Taylor-Gooby2007333Risk in social scienceBook, Whole333Risk in social scienceTaylor-Gooby,P.Zinn,J.2007RiskScienceIn FileTaylor-Gooby,P.Zinn,J.LondonOxford University Press2(2007; 2006) discuss recent developments in approaches to risk research and risk in social science overall, and Alaszewski and Brown ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Alaszewski2007331Risk, uncertainty and knowledgeJournal331Risk, uncertainty and knowledgeAlaszewski,A.Brown,P.2007CultureDecision MakingHealthHealth careKnowledgelay knowledgePatientsRiskstandardsTrustuncertaintyIn File110Health, Risk & Society91Routledge1369-8575http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/13698570601183033Health, Risk & Society1(2007) discuss uncertainty and knowledge with regard to risk.
Moving to risk communication specifically, Kasperson and Kasperson ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Kasperson2005287The social contours of riskBook, Whole287The social contours of riskKasperson,J.Kasperson,R.2005RiskIn File1LondonEarthscan2(2005) write about the social dimensions of risk and how risk is communicated to various stakeholders, and Pidgeon et al ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Pidgeon2003303The social amplification of riskBook, Whole303The social amplification of riskPidgeon,N.Kasperson,R.Slovic,P.2003RiskRisk communicationCommunicationPublic Policysocial amplificationmediaIn FilePidgeon,N.Kasperson,R.Slovic,P.CambridgeCambridge University Press2(2003) write on a framework called the social amplification of risk. Leading risk theorists including Fischoff ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Fischoff1995273Risk perception and communication unplugged: Twenty years of processJournal273Risk perception and communication unplugged: Twenty years of processFischoff,Baruch1995CommunicationPerceptionRiskRisk communicationRisk perceptionNot in File137145Risk Analysis152doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00308.xhttp://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00308.xRisk Analysis1(1995), Leiss ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Leiss1996283Three phases in the evolution of risk communication practiceJournal283Three phases in the evolution of risk communication practiceLeiss,W.1996RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn File8594The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science545The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science1(1996), Lofstedt ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Lofstedt2003298Risk communication: pitfalls and promisesJournal298Risk communication: pitfalls and promisesLofstedt,R.2003/7/21CommunicationRiskRisk communicationIn File417435European Review1103European Review1(2003), and Plough and Krimsky ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Plough1987284The emergence of risk communication studies: Social and political contextJournal284The emergence of risk communication studies: Social and political contextPlough,A.Krimsky,S.1987RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn File410Science, Technology and Human Values123/4Science, Technology and Human Values1(1987) describe from their standpoints the evolution of risk communication. Providing more of a critique than an overview of risk communications approaches are van Eijndhoven ADDIN REFMGR.CITE van Eijndhoeven1991324Risk communication: The need for a broader perspectiveBook Chapter324Risk communication: The need for a broader perspectivevan Eijndhoeven,J.1991RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn File393412Communicating risks to the public: International perspectivesKasperson,R.Stallen,P17DordrechtKluwer Academic Publishers3(1991), Leiss ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Leiss1994272Risk communication and public knowledgeBook Chapter272Risk communication and public knowledgeLeiss,W.1994Abstracts of Books and Book Chapterscom abstractsCommunicationCommunication TheoryHealthKnowledgePublic RelationsRiskRisk communicationtransmissionIn File127139Communications theory todayCrowley,D.Mitchell,D.6CambridgePolity Press3(1994), Alaszewski ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Alaszewski2005304Risk communication: Identifying the importance of social contextJournal304Risk communication: Identifying the importance of social contextAlaszewski,A.2005*Communication*Health Behavior*Information Dissemination*Information Sources*Public Health*Risk*United Kingdom2045 sociology of health and medicineCommunicationHealthHealth PolicyPublic HealthRiskRisk communicationsociology of medicine & health careTrustIn FileJuneHealth, Risk & Societyvol. 7no. 21369-8575Affiliation Centre Health Services Studies, U Kent, Canterbury, UKHealth, Risk & Society1(2005) and Bostrom ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Bostrom2003279Communicating risk: Wireless and hardwiredJournal279Communicating risk: Wireless and hardwiredBostrom,AnnLofstedt,Ragnar E.2003/4CommunicationPERIODICALSPublic PolicyRiskRisk communicationRisk ManagementScienceNot in File241248Risk Analysis: An International Journal232Blackwell Publishing Limited02724332Articlehttp://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=9614885&site=ehost-liveRisk Analysis: An International Journal1(2003). Bennett and Calman ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Bennett1999289Risk communication and public healthBook, Whole289Risk communication and public healthBennett,P.Calman,K.1999RiskRisk communicationCommunicationPublic HealthHealthRisk perceptionPerceptionHealth CommunicationKnowledgemethodssocial amplificationmediaIn FileBennett,P.Calman,Sir K.OxfordOxford University Press2(1999) focus on risk communication in public health.
As mentioned, many books focus on the range of risk and risk communications areas, however I have chosen additional articles on sub-topics that seemed to warrant further exploration, for instance Ulmer et al ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Ulmer2007282Effective crisis communication: Moving from crisis to opportunityBook, Whole282Effective crisis communication: Moving from crisis to opportunityUlmer,R.Sellnow,T.Seeger,M.2007Crisis communicationCommunicationRiskRisk communicationIn FileThousand OaksSage Publications2(2007), Willis ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Willis1997271Reporting on risks: the practice and ethics of health and safety communicationBook, Whole271Reporting on risks: the practice and ethics of health and safety communicationWillis,J.Okunade,A.1997com abstractsCommunicationHealthHealth careHealth CommunicationHealth PolicyJournalismJournalism EthicsPublic HealthRiskRisk communicationSafetySciencetrendsIn FileWestport, Conn.Praeger2(1997), and Guttman ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Guttman2000317Public health communication interventions: Values and ethical dilemmasBook, Whole317Public health communication interventions: Values and ethical dilemmasGuttman,Nurit2000Public HealthHealthHealth CommunicationCommunicationIn FileThousand Oaks, CASage Publications2(2000) on ethics, Horlick Jones ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Horlick-Jones2004307'Experts in risk?' Do they exist?Journal307'Experts in risk?' Do they exist?Horlick-Jones,Tom2004/6BUSINESSCommunicationcontingencyDecision MakingELECTRONIC commerceexpertiseexpertsHealthKnowledgelay knowledgemediated knowledgeMEDICAL carePatientsRiskRisk ManagementScienceSOCIAL sciencestechnology decision-makingNot in File107114Health, Risk & Society62Routledge13698575Editorialhttp://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=afh&AN=13310033&site=ehost-liveHealth, Risk & Society1(2004) on expertise, Lichtenberg and Maclean ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Lichtenberg1991322The role of the media in risk communicationBook Chapter322The role of the media in risk communicationLichtenberg,J.MacLean,D.1991mediaRiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn File157174Communicating risks to the public: International perspectivesKasperson,R.Stallen,P.8DordrechtKluwer Academic Publishers3(1991), Kitzinger ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Kitzinger1999336Researching risk and the mediaJournal336Researching risk and the mediaKitzinger,Jenny1999RiskmediaIn File5569Health, Risk & Society11Health, Risk & Society1(1999) and Allan ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Allan2002334Media, risk and scienceBook, Whole334Media, risk and scienceAllan,S.2002mediaRiskScienceIn FileBuckingham, PhiladelphiaOpen University Press2(2002) on media, and Sorensen and Mileti ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Sorensen1991323Risk communication in emergenciesBook Chapter323Risk communication in emergenciesSorensen,J.Mileti,D.1991RiskRisk communicationCommunicationEmergenciesIn File367392Communication risks to the public: International perspectivesKasperson,R.Stallen,P16DordrechtKluwer Academic Publishers3(1991) on risk communication in emergencies. Focusing on the implications of attributing and communicating risk to specific populations are Poudrier ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Poudrier2003335"Racial" categories and health risks: epidemiological surveillance among Canadian First NationsBook Chapter335"Racial" categories and health risks: epidemiological surveillance among Canadian First NationsPoudrier,J.2003HealthRiskIn File111134Lyon,D.6LondonRoutledge3(2003), Lauritzen and Sachs ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Lauritzen2001337Normality, risk and the future: implicit communication of threat in health surveillance.Journal337Normality, risk and the future: implicit communication of threat in health surveillance.Lauritzen,Sonja OlinSachs,Lisbeth2001/7ChildCHILDREN -- Health & hygieneclinical encountersCommunicationCOMMUNICATION in medicineHealthHealth BehaviorHEALTH risk assessmentHEALTH risk communicationhealth surveillanceMEDICINEPatientsRiskRisk AssessmentRisk communicationthreatsNot in File497516Sociology of Health & Illness234Blackwell Publishing Limited01419889Articlehttp://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hch&AN=4889765&site=ehost-liveSociology of Health & Illness1(2001), Forde ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Forde1998338Is imposing risk awareness cultural imperialism?Journal338Is imposing risk awareness cultural imperialism?FOrde,Olav Helge1998/11CultureepidemiologyHealthRisksocial classNot in File11551159Social Science & Medicine479http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VBF-3WBWYBH-4/2/6d2642b13dd8289df577cec4c323ed59Social Science & Medicine1(1998) and Leslie ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Leslie2006340Fear and coughing in Toronto: SARS and the uses of riskJournal340Fear and coughing in Toronto: SARS and the uses of riskLeslie,M.2006FearRiskIn File367389Canadia Journal of Communication31Canadia Journal of Communication1(2006).
Though some of the above books include case studies of empirical research, I have incorporated several stand-alone articles in this vein, including two overview articles (Gurabardhi et al, ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Gurabardhi2004281The development of risk communication: An empirical analysis of the literature in the fieldJournal281The development of risk communication: An empirical analysis of the literature in the fieldGurabardhi,ZamiraGutteling,Jan M.Kuttschreuter,MargOt2004/6/1CommunicationRiskRisk communicationSciencetrendsNot in File323349Science Communication254http://scx.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/25/4/323Science Communication1(2004); McComas, ADDIN REFMGR.CITE McComas2006268Defining moments in risk communication research: 1996-2005Journal268Defining moments in risk communication research: 1996-2005McComas,K.A.2006com abstractsCommunicationCommunication researchCommunication Theory and ResearchHealthHealth CommunicationMass MediaMedia coverageMessagesmethodsModelsRiskRisk communicationTrustIn FileJournal of Health Communication1pp. 75-911081-0730Journal of Health Communication1(2006), a piece by Fitchen et al ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Fitchen1987318Risk perception in community context: A case studyBook Chapter318Risk perception in community context: A case studyFitchen,J.Heath,J.Fessenden-Raden,J.1987RiskRisk perceptionPerceptionIn File3154The social and cultural construction of risk: Essays on risk selection and perceptionJohnson,B.B.Covello,V.2DordrechtD. Reidel3(1987) on a case study of a communitys contaminated drinking water, and one by Thirlaway ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Thirlaway2005306Interpreting risk messages: Women's responses to a health storyJournal306Interpreting risk messages: Women's responses to a health storyThirlaway,K.Heggs,D.2005/6CommunicationHealthHealth careHUMAN behaviorMEDICAL careMessagesPerceptionpsychologyRiskRisk communicationRisk perceptionRisk-TakingRISK-taking (Psychology)RISK-taking (Psychology) in adolescenceScienceSOCIAL sciencesNot in File107121Health, Risk & Society72Routledge13698575Articlehttp://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=afh&AN=17239929&site=ehost-liveHealth, Risk & Society1(2005) on womens responses to breast cancer risk messages. Powell and Leiss ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Powell1997300Mad cows and mother's milk: The perils of poor risk communicationBook, Whole300Mad cows and mother's milk: The perils of poor risk communicationPowell,D.Leiss,W.1997RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn FileMontrealMcGill-Queen's University Press2(1997) devote an entire book to case studies of risk communication practices.
PhD comprehensive exam definitional essay and reading list: Health risk communication
Draft 5, July 5, 2007contd
Finally, I have included several readings on the practice of risk communications. Lundgren ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Lundgren2004294Risk communication: A handbook for communicating environmental, safety and health risksBook, Whole294Risk communication: A handbook for communicating environmental, safety and health risksLundgren,R.McMakin,A.2004RiskRisk communicationCommunicationSafetyHealthIn FileThirdColumbus, OhioBatelle Press2(2004) provides a handbook of risk communications strategies based on theoretical approaches to risk; Sandman ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Sandman1993293Responding to community outrage: Strategies for effective risk communicationBook, Whole293Responding to community outrage: Strategies for effective risk communicationSandman,P.1993RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn FileSecondFairfax, VAAmerican Industrial Hygeine Association2(1993) is a much-cited practitioner in the field of risk communication; the National Research Council ADDIN REFMGR.CITE National Research Council1989313Improving risk communicationBook, Whole313Improving risk communicationNational Research Council1989RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn FileWashington, DCNational Academy Press2(1989) book is credited with moving the field beyond the expert vs layperson debate; and Covello et al ADDIN REFMGR.CITE Covello1987314Effective risk communication: The role and responsibility of government and nongovernment organizationsBook, Whole314Effective risk communication: The role and responsibility of government and nongovernment organizationsCovello,V.Mccallum,D.Pavlova,M.1987RiskRisk communicationCommunicationIn FileCovello,V.Mccallum,D.Pavlova,M.2(1987) explore roles and responsibilities of government and other organizations in risk communication.
While risk communication is still too often viewed as the simple one-way transmission of facts to the public aimed at allaying health or environmental concerns, the above readings reveal a vibrant, multi-paradigmatic and cross-disciplinary field that continues to evolve to reflect changing notions of risk in society.
ADDIN REFMGR.REFLIST Reference List
1. Alaszewski, A. (2005). Risk communication: Identifying the importance of social context. Health, Risk & Society, vol. 7, June.
2. Alaszewski, A. & Brown, P. (2007). Risk, uncertainty and knowledge. Health, Risk & Society, 9, 1-10.
3. Allan, S. (2002). Media, risk and science. Buckingham, Philadelphia: Open University Press.
4. Bauman, Z. (1999). In search of politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
5. Bauman, Z. (2007). Liquid times: Living in an age of uncertainty. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
6. Beck, U. (1996). World risk society as cosmopolitan society?: Ecological questions in a framework of manufactured uncertainties. Theory, Culture & Society, 13, 1-32.
7. Beck, U. (1999). World risk society. Cambridge: Polity Press.
8. Beck, U. (2006). Living in the world risk society. Economy and Society, 35, 329-345.
9. Bennett, P. & Calman, K. (1999). Risk communication and public health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10. Bostrom, A. & Lofstedt, R. E. (2003). Communicating risk: Wireless and hardwired. Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 23, 241-248.
11. Covello, V., Mccallum, D., & Pavlova, M. (1987). Effective risk communication: The role and responsibility of government and nongovernment organizations.
12. Douglas, M. & Wildavsky, A. (1982). Risk and culture: An essay on the selection of technical and environmental dangers. Berkely, CA: University of California Press.
13. Fischoff, B. (1995). Risk perception and communication unplugged: Twenty years of process. Risk Analysis, 15, 137-145.
14. Fitchen, J., Heath, J., & Fessenden-Raden, J. (1987). Risk perception in community context: A case study. In B.B.Johnson & V. Covello (Eds.), The social and cultural construction of risk: Essays on risk selection and perception (pp. 31-54). Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
15. FOrde, O. H. (1998). Is imposing risk awareness cultural imperialism? Social Science & Medicine, 47, 1155-1159.
16. Gurabardhi, Z., Gutteling, J. M., & Kuttschreuter, M. (2004). The development of risk communication: An empirical analysis of the literature in the field. Science Communication, 25, 323-349.
17. Guttman, N. (2000). Public health communication interventions: Values and ethical dilemmas. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
18. Horlick-Jones, T. (2004). 'Experts in risk?' Do they exist? Health, Risk & Society, 6, 107-114.
19. Kasperson, J. & Kasperson, R. (2005). The social contours of risk. (vols. 1) London: Earthscan.
20. Kitzinger, J. (1999). Researching risk and the media. Health, Risk & Society, 1, 55-69.
21. Krimsky, S. & Golding, D. (1992). Social theories of risk. Westport, CT: Praeger.
22. Lauritzen, S. O. & Sachs, L. (2001). Normality, risk and the future: implicit communication of threat in health surveillance. Sociology of Health & Illness, 23, 497-516.
23. Leiss, W. (1996). Three phases in the evolution of risk communication practice. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545, 85-94.
24. Leiss, W. (1994). Risk communication and public knowledge. In D.Crowley & D. Mitchell (Eds.), Communications theory today (pp. 127-139). Cambridge: Polity Press.
25. Leslie, M. (2006). Fear and coughing in Toronto: SARS and the uses of risk. Canadia Journal of Communication, 31, 367-389.
26. Lichtenberg, J. & MacLean, D. (1991). The role of the media in risk communication. In R.Kasperson & P. Stallen (Eds.), Communicating risks to the public: International perspectives (pp. 157-174). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
27. Lofstedt, R. (2003). Risk communication: pitfalls and promises. European Review, 11, 417-435.
28. Lundgren, R. & McMakin, A. (2004). Risk communication: A handbook for communicating environmental, safety and health risks. (Third ed.) Columbus, Ohio: Batelle Press.
29. Lupton, D. (1999). Risk. London: Routledge.
30. McComas, K. A. (2006). Defining moments in risk communication research: 1996-2005. Journal of Health Communication, 1.
31. National Research Council (1989). Improving risk communication. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
32. Pidgeon, N., Kasperson, R., & Slovic, P. (2003). The social amplification of risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33. Plough, A. & Krimsky, S. (1987). The emergence of risk communication studies: Social and political context. Science, Technology and Human Values, 12, 4-10.
34. Poudrier, J. (2003). "Racial" categories and health risks: epidemiological surveillance among Canadian First Nations. In D.Lyon (Ed.), (pp. 111-134). London: Routledge.
35. Powell, D. & Leiss, W. (1997). Mad cows and mother's milk: The perils of poor risk communication. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.
36. Sandman, P. (1993). Responding to community outrage: Strategies for effective risk communication. (Second ed.) Fairfax, VA: American Industrial Hygeine Association.
37. Sorensen, J. & Mileti, D. (1991). Risk communication in emergencies. In R.Kasperson & P. Stallen (Eds.), Communication risks to the public: International perspectives (pp. 367-392). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
38. Tarr, J. & Jacobson, C. (1987). Environmental risk in historical perspective. In B.B.Johnson & V. Covello (Eds.), The social and cultural construction of risk: Essays on risk selection and perception (pp. 317-344). Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
39. Taylor-Gooby, P. & Zinn, J. (2006). Current directions in risk research: New developments in psychology and sociology. Risk Analysis, 26, 397-411.
40. Taylor-Gooby, P. & Zinn, J. (2007). Risk in social science. London: Oxford University Press.
41. Thirlaway, K. & Heggs, D. (2005). Interpreting risk messages: Women's responses to a health story. Health, Risk & Society, 7, 107-121.
42. Ulmer, R., Sellnow, T., & Seeger, M. (2007). Effective crisis communication: Moving from crisis to opportunity. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
43. van Eijndhoeven, J. (1991). Risk communication: The need for a broader perspective. In R.Kasperson & P. Stallen (Eds.), Communicating risks to the public: International perspectives (pp. 393-412). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
44. Willis, J. & Okunade, A. (1997). Reporting on risks: the practice and ethics of health and safety communication. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
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